Applied Interventions and Programs for the Lonely

      An intervention program entails various approaches that seek to assist individuals or families in overcoming their problem especially when the they are unable to do so themselves.  This section will summarize various causes of loneliness as has been put forward in previous sections, and then with the use of previous literature suggest activities that may appropriately deal with the causes of loneliness.

Two Causes of Loneliness

      This paper looked at loneliness from two perspectives, attachment theory and systems theory, and suggested different ways in which the three main dimensions of loneliness (type of deprivation, emotional characteristics, and time perspective) could be explained by each perspective.  One important distinction made between these perspectives is the idea that the causal problem of loneliness could be inside the person (attachment theory) or outside the person (systems theory).  Attachment theory has demonstrated that lonely individuals may develop working models that promote causes of loneliness including, failure expectations, poor coping strategies, insecure attachments, and relationships lacking intimacy.  Systems theory has also suggested that lonely adolescents may exist in a family context, which inhibits the ability to reduce of their cognitive discrepancy. 

It is possible therefore for an individual to vary independently on internal causal factors and on external causal factors.  An adolescent, for example, may have developed insecure attachments and currently exists in a chaotically disengaged family vs. an adolescent who has secure attachments but currently exists in a chaotically disengaged family (such as in a divorced family).  Adolescents who have both internal and external causal loneliness factors conceivably are at a greater disadvantage than adolescents who have either just an internal or external causal loneliness factor or none at all.  Table 2 below outlines the relationship between loneliness, internal/external causal loneliness factors, and variations from best to worst case scenario.

Table 2.

Case scenarios between loneliness, attachment theory, and systems theory.

If family environments have been consistent from childhood through to adolescence, it is conceivable that there is a strong relationship between internal and external causes of loneliness.  Attachment theory suggests that loneliness is caused because of the poor working models (and resultant attachment styles) developed through interactions with attachment figures.  Interestingly these attachment styles suggest that parents are unresponsive, or inconsistently responsive to the needs of children, which is similar to the chaotically disengagement family type discussed under the systems theory section.  It is highly probable therefore that adolescents in chaotically disengaged families may experience loneliness, not only because of the external family context but also because this family context at an early period was fertile ground for internal, developmental causes of loneliness as well.

Intervention programs therefore have to adopt a multitude of different approaches in order to assist various lonely individuals.  Rook (1984) for example, suggested that loneliness intervention programs need to have individual approaches to deal with internal causal factors and also group and environmental approaches.  Loneliness intervention programs that are assisting adolescents in the worst case scenario will have a more difficult time alleviating their loneliness than adolescents in moderate or best case scenarios. 

Rook (1984) states that loneliness intervention programs can have three broad goals, to establish satisfying interpersonal ties, to prevent loneliness from evolving into or contribution to more serious problems, and to prevent loneliness from occurring in risk populations (p. 1391).  Each one of these goals may apply to different loneliness case scenarios.  In worst case scenarios it may not be possible for intervention programs to alleviate a person’s loneliness not only because of internal factors, but also that external factors such as the family may work against attempts by intervention programs to reduce this loneliness.  Hansen, Nangle, and Meyer (1998) for example, mention that without parental support, social skills interventions may have a difficult time successfully implementing their program.  In such cases, the goal of preventing loneliness from evolving into more serious problems may be an appropriate goal.  In more moderate case scenarios, trying to establish satisfying interpersonal ties may be more feasible since the accumulative problem of internal and external causes does not occur.  Lastly, in the best case scenario, the final goal of prevention in risk populations can be applied, especially when such individuals experience a sudden loss through death, divorce or separation.

      The loneliness problem therefore is multidimensional.  Previous sections have shown that each of the various perspectives vary in different dimensions of loneliness.  Basically the causes can be seen as internal, external or both, and needs a variety of intervention activities to deal with these different causes.  These causes and possible kinds of intervention activities will be looked at below.

Attachment, Loneliness and Intervention  

Cognitive therapy.  As was discussed in the section on attachment theory, lonely persons may have developed a working model in which they have expectations that they will be rejected in new social situations.  Previously mentioned research by Nurmi et al (1997) for example, has shown that lonely individuals tend to possess a pessimistic avoidance cognitive strategy.  One type of activity that can be utilized in loneliness intervention programs is cognitive therapy (Evans & Dingus, 1989; Murphy & Kupshik, 1992; Rook, 1984; Rook & Peplau, 1982; Young, 1982).  Rook and Peplau (1982) highlight that part of the cognitive therapy is helping clients recognize automatic thoughts about being rejected in social situations or about their own competencies.  Cognitive therapy seeks to highlight these cognitions and help clients realize that they are irrational in nature.  It would allow one therefore to question one’s working model, to be critical of thoughts about self-competence or future events.  According to Rook (1984) it helps modify dysfunctional beliefs by recognizing and correcting self-defeating thought patterns.

Rook (1984) also highlights another intervention activity, modifying interpersonal orientations.  Within this activity, especially within client-therapist relationships, the therapist establishes a relationship of trust with the client that affords for self-disclosure.  Therefore they learn to change their cognitions and behavior based upon an actual relationship evolved during the therapy process between the client and the therapist.  This very much resembles the therapist adapting the role of an attachment figure, and therefore restructuring the latent working model present within the lonely person.   The person can through this restructuring of the working model, adapt different expectations about unknown people which could afford for better attempts at constructing personal relationships.

Teaching adaptive coping strategies.  As was discussed in the attachment section, lonely individuals sometimes adopt coping strategies that tend to perpetuate their loneliness.  This can lead to further complications, such as severe depression and suicide (Rook, 1984).  Another intervention activity that can be used therefore, involves teaching lonely individuals how to cope with loneliness.  Intervention programs can teach lonely individuals how to effectively cope with their loneliness, which may include coping in ways that may increase the possibility of social contact.  This is related to ideas put forward by Ponzetti (1990) who argues that part of intervention strategies is to teach individuals that their loneliness is controllable.  Indeed loneliness has also been related to feelings of hopelessness (Jones, 1982; Ruchkin, Eisemann, & Hägglöf, 1999) and learnt helplessness (Ponzetti, 1990) thereby leaving individuals at the mercy of their feelings of loneliness.  Ponzetti (1990) argues that individuals should take charge of their loneliness and in particular adopt more effective coping strategies.

Systems theory, Loneliness, and Intervention

Family intervention.  Olson’s (1993) Circumplex model describes two family types that possess characteristics, which may be fertile ground for adolescent loneliness.  These were the chaotically disengaged and the rigidly enmeshed family types.  Both of these family systems measure on the extreme ends of the two main dimensions of cohesion and flexibility of the Circumplex model and Olson (1993) refers to these as extreme family system types.  In order to reduce adolescent loneliness therefore, it may be necessary to adjust the way the family functions, and try to move the family system away from the extremes on each dimension, towards more mid-ranged or balanced family system types.  This change while difficult for these family types is not altogether impossible (Olson, 1993).

Along these lines, Perlman (1988) suggests that parents need to have more positive involvement with their children.  Parents “need to be affectionate, trustworthy, and sounding boards with whom their children can talk over problems” (p. 211).  In this way parents can begin to fill the gap within adolescents who do not have adequate social skills to resolve their discrepancy in the levels of social relations.

      Social opportunities.  Family intervention can also help parents to reduce their adolescents’ loneliness by being sources for social opportunities (Perlman, 1988).  Perlman (1988) for example, suggests that parents can not only attempt to provide greater social opportunities for adolescents through such activities as hosting parties and sleep-overs, but also try to be more accepting of adolescents’ choice of friends.  Interventions can also take on this role by providing for lonely individuals sources for social opportunities.  Rook (1984) argues that communities and other groups can provide opportunities for lonely persons, and also that intervention programs can make lonely persons aware that such opportunities exist within the community.  Therefore lonely individuals may get the opportunity to meet new people and establish meaningful relationships.

General Conclusion.

      An intervention approach to loneliness needs to be multifaceted (Rook & Peplau, 1982).  Lonely individuals can have a combination of internal causes, external causes.  Various goals of loneliness intervention programs as put forward by Rook (1984) may be useful to lonely individuals in these different scenarios.  Approaches from attachment theory suggest adjusting working models and expectations of failure, and also teaching more effective coping strategies.  Systems theory suggests family intervention, geared at changing the family system, and teaching parents to provide social opportunities for their children, can help in reducing loneliness.  When combined, these activities can make for an effective loneliness intervention program.

To conclude in the words of Peplau and Perlman (1982): “Few of us have escaped the painful experience of loneliness.  In the natural course of growing up our social relationships begin, change, and end.  In infancy we first experience the distressing anxiety of being separated, often only temporarily, from loving caretakers.  As children, we venture into a wider world of social relations where we try, not always successfully, to gain acceptance and friendships from peers...For teenagers, the exhilarating prospect of first love may in reality include experiences of love spurned or gone sour.  As adults, our web of social relationships continues to shift...Social transitions are a basic fact of life in modern society, and so is loneliness.  For most of us, intense feelings of loneliness are short-lived; for others, loneliness is a persistent aspect of daily life” (p. 1).  The causes of loneliness are as complex as its cures.