From the early writings of Weiss (1973) through to more modern publications (Rotenberg & Hymel, 1999), numerous authors have lamented the fact that loneliness is a very pervasive, yet little researched phenomenon. For example, Rotenberg (1999a) writes, “Given the apparent universality of loneliness and its link to psychosocial maladjustment, it is truly surprising that research on loneliness has emerged rather recently in the history of psychology…primarily within the past 25 years” (p. 4). Both Rotenberg (1999a) and Perlman and Landolt (1999) acknowledge that research and publications on loneliness have been increasing rapidly over the past few years. With the increasing publications and research, comes also an increasing need to understand previous theories concerning loneliness, and also to generate new theories of loneliness. This paper is an attempt to look back at theoretical work on loneliness and suggest new ways of conceptualizing loneliness.

The phenomenon of loneliness will be analyzed from three different theoretical perspectives, namely attachment theory, systems theory, and applied intervention within four main sections. There will be special emphasis on the period of adolescence and adulthood in the attachment theory section, and on the adolescent period in the systems theory section. The first section will describe an adapted version of three dimensions of loneliness put forward by de Jong-Gierveld and Raadschelders (1982). The second section utilizes attachment theory as a theoretical foundation within which to explain possible developmental origins of loneliness. Various authors (e.g., Cassidy & Berlin, 1999; Hojat, 1989; Rokach, 2000) have suggested that adolescent and adult loneliness may have some of its origins in the historical attachment relationship between the lonely person and his/her caregivers. The third section employs systems theory, and in particular Olson’s (1993) Circumplex Model of marital and family systems, to explore how different family systems can create environments, which can sustain feelings of loneliness within adolescents. The last section summarizes the suggested causes of loneliness via attachment and systems theories and cites several intervention strategies, which utilize insights provided by both attachment and systems theories.

Dimensions of Loneliness

Of particular interest in this paper is the three dimensions of loneliness put forward by de Jong-Gierveld and Raadschelders (1982) which are: types of deprivation, emotional characteristics, and time perspective. Slight modifications have been made to the dimensions that were originally proposed by de Jong-Gierveld and Raadschelders (1982) to reflect developments in the field since their publication.

Three Dimensions of Loneliness

Type of deprivation. Popular definitions of loneliness (e.g., Perlman & Peplau, 1981; Weiss, 1973) suggest some type of social relationship deprivation. While called by different names, two types of deprivation have been distinguished. Weiss (1973) makes the distinction between deprivation of an intimate other vs. deprivation in a social network. These he called loneliness of emotional isolation (emotional loneliness for short) and loneliness of social isolation (social loneliness for short) respectively. This distinction between two types of deprivation suggest alternative theories about whether loneliness can be described as an actual need that exists because of the absence of required relationships (emotional loneliness) or a cognitive discrepancy between desired and achieved patterns of social relations (social loneliness). Cassidy and Berlin (1999) make the distinction between loneliness that has its origins in the attachment system versus loneliness having its origins in a sociable system (or social network). These are two systems that can operate independently of each other, and can simultaneously or independently arouse feelings of loneliness within a person. Highlighted in this paper will be the connections between emotional loneliness and attachment theory and between social loneliness (cognitive discrepancy) and systems theory approach. 

Emotional characteristics. A less emphasized but important dimension of loneliness concerns the range of feelings or affect (sometimes described as painful, sad, unpleasant and distressing) experienced from mild to severe. Theorists have argued the importance of its emphasis within any definition of loneliness (Gordon, 1976; Parkhurst & Hopmeyer, 1999; Peplau & Perlman, 1982; Stokes, 1989; Weiss, 1989). Describing loneliness as an emotional phenomenon also implies that loneliness is a powerful motivator. Indeed Flanders (1982) argues that loneliness may be a feedback mechanism designed to alert the individual that there is a deficiency in social relationships and provide motivation to return to the appropriate social level. On the other hand, Parkhurst and Hopmeyer (1999) argue that emotions can also act as inhibitors, and affect people’s ability for successful social interaction. These concepts are useful when applying attachment and systems theories to loneliness.

Time perspective. The time perspective takes into account the duration of the feeling of loneliness within a person. There is the traditional view of chronic loneliness in addition to a less chronic, often transient state of loneliness that may be functional (Larson, 1999; Suedfeld, 1982). There is a need then to differentiate between two possibly qualitatively different states of loneliness. Chronic loneliness is severe type of loneliness, which is generally intense and is an almost omnipresent state of loneliness, regardless of situation or circumstance. The other type of loneliness is less severe and can be adaptive. Various researchers have referred to it differently, such as state loneliness or transient loneliness. According to Duck (1992) this type of loneliness is more as a result of the situation in which social interaction is deficient rather than due to some characteristic of the person (e.g., moving to a new environment).

The time perspective is an important component for this paper in understanding how attachment theory and systems theory can be used to explain loneliness. Transient loneliness conceivable can be caused to a greater degree by random events rather than due to a persistent cause over time. By looking at individuals with more chronic loneliness, useful theoretical questions can be asked about what persistent causes may be present that keeps a person feeling lonely.